The Society of Toxicology (SOT) seeks to recruit diverse and talented scientists to the field of toxicology. The first edition of the Resource Guide to Careers in Toxicology was conceived and prepared by members of the Educational Issues Task Force of the Tox 90’s Commission, including Jay Gandolfi, PhD (Committee Chairman), University of Arizona; David L. Eaton, PhD (Project Coordinator), University of Washington; Robert E. Dudley, PhD, Gynex, Inc.; Michele Medinsky, PhD, CIIT; Harihara Mehendale, PhD, University of Mississippi; and Curtis D. Klaassen, PhD (Council Liaison), University of Kansas Medical Center, with additional guidance from –1990 SOT President Roger O. McClellan.

The format for the fourth edition has been substantially revised. Since the Internet has become a primary source of information, this edition directs students and advisors to detailed information that the academic programs maintain

This revision was completed under the direction of the SOT Education Committee (Claude McGowan, PhD, 1998–1999 Chair, Janssen at Washington Crossing; and Rick G. Schnellmann, PhD, 1999–2000 Chair, University of Arkansas Medical Sciences); and a Task Force consisting of James E. Klaunig, PhD (Project Coordinator), Indiana University School of Medicine; David L. Eaton, PhD, University of Washington; A. Jay Gandolfi, PhD, University of Arizona; Claude McGowan, PhD, Janssen at Washington Crossing; Mary Davis, PhD, West Virginia University Medical Center; Jacqueline H. Smith, PhD, Exxon Biomedical Sciences, Inc.; and Betty

What Is Toxicology?

Hardly a week goes by without hearing that a chemical may potentially threaten our health—pesticides in the food we eat, pollutants in the air we breathe, chemicals in the water we drink, toxic dump sites near our homes. Chemicals make up everything around us. Which chemicals are really dangerous? How much does it take to cause harm? What are the effects of a particular chemical? Cancer? Nervous system damage? Birth defects?

Finding scientifically sound answers to these very important questions is what toxicologists do, using the most modern molecular, genetic, and analytical techniques available. Toxicology combines the elements of many scientific disciplines to help us understand the harmful effects of chemicals on living organisms.

An additional, important aspect of toxicology is determining the likelihood that harmful effects will occur under certain exposure circumstances, sometimes called “risk assessment.” If the risks are real, then we must be able to deal with them effectively. If the risks are trivial, then we must ensure that valuable public resources are not spent ineffectively. Such important decisions must be made with

The responsibilities of the toxicologist

1. develop new and better ways to determine the potential harmful effects of chemical and physical agents and the amount (dosage) that will cause these effects. An essential part of this is to learn more about the basic molecular, biochemical and cellular processes responsible for diseases caused by exposure to chemical or physical substances;
2. design and carry out carefully controlled studies of specific chemicals of social and economic importance to determine the conditions under which they can be used safely (that is, conditions that have little or no negative impact on human health, other organisms, or the environment);
3. assess the probability, or likelihood, that particular chemicals, processes or situations present a significant risk to human health and/or the environment, and assist in the establishment of rules and regulations aimed at protecting and preserving human health and the environment.

Why Consider a Career in Toxicology?

Challenges

Wise use of chemicals is an essential component of the high standard of living we enjoy. The challenge to toxicologists is to ensure that we are not endangering our health or the environment with the products and by-products of modern and comfortable living. As a career, toxicology provides the excitement of science and research while also contributing to the well-being of current and future generations. Few other careers offer such exciting and socially important challenges as protecting public health and the environment.

Opportunities

With the increase in our health consciousness, as well as concern for our environment, a wide and growing variety of career opportunities exist in toxicology.

Toxicologists:

• participate in basic research using the most advanced techniques in molecular biology, analytical chemistry, and biomedical sciences;
• work with chemical, pharmaceutical, and many other industries to test and ensure that their products and workplaces are safe, and to evaluate the implications of new research data;
• work for local and federal governments to develop and enforce laws to ensure that chemicals are produced, used and disposed of safely; work in academic institutions to teach others about the safe use of chemicals and to train future toxicologists.

Attractive Salaries and Professional Advancement

The demand for well-trained toxicologists continues to increase. Highly competitive salaries are available in a variety of employment sectors. Increasing specialization in the science of toxicology now provides the toxicologist with a competitive advantage over chemists, engineers, biologists or other scientists without specialized training in toxicology. Opportunities are available for career advancement to executive levels for those with organizational and administrative

What can I do with a degree in Toxicology?

Toxicologists work mainly in industry and governments, but also at universities. Their tasks range from testing for the effects of particular chemicals, determining their concentrations, assessing risks by interpreting data, and searching for mechanisms of toxicity. There are many subspecialties such as Clinical Toxicology, Industrial Toxicology and Environmental Toxicology, offering opportunities for specialized employment. Toxicology is a major component in the pharmaceutical industry. 

Students who have graduated with a B.Sc. degree will often find it helpful and even necessary to continue studying, in the School of Graduate Studies, for a Master of Science (MSc) degree or Doctorate (PhD) before choosing a professional career. Almost without exception, the well-trained toxicologist holds an MSc or PhD degree with three to six years of additional formal university education.

Another route into a career as a toxicologist is from other professions. Earning a degree in medicine (MD), veterinary medicine (DVM) or pharmacy (BScPharm), or completing a combined MD/PhD program will often lead to a clinically oriented branch of Toxicology. A background in botany or zoology will help those pursuing Environmental Toxicology, but so might a background in chemistry or chemical engineering. Familiarity with methods of detection of toxic chemicals, and the pitfalls of such methods, will be an asset; however, the ability to detect or measure a foreign chemical is not by itself “toxicology”.

Students who wish to focus is on the effects of toxicological agents on the human being at a graduate level may consider enrolling in the Collaborative Specialization in Toxicology at the University of Toronto.

Minimum academic standards for the attainment of a Bachelor’s Degree as published in the Calendar of the Faculty of Arts & Science are uniform for all programs of study. However, students intending to apply to the School of Graduate Studies in the University of Toronto after graduation will be confronted by high, competitive entrance requirements. It is advisable that students familiarize themselves with these requirements as early as possible, and that they organize their undergraduate studies accordingl

Forensic Toxicology

Forensic toxicology is among the best-known types of toxicology, thanks in no small part to crime-focused TV shows. A forensic toxicologist works at the intersection of criminal justice and science. There are four different specialty areas of forensic toxicology, as follows:

• Workplace drug testing – Employers may need to check whether employees or contractors have been using banned substances. This is especially important in occupations in which safety violations can cost lives, such as in the transportation industry.
• Doping control – Professional athletes ranging from Olympic gymnasts to Major League Baseball players are all subjected to drug tests on a routine basis. There is a lengthy list of substances that these individuals are banned from using, including both illegal and legal substances. Forensic toxicologists work in labs to test and interpret the results of samples from professional athletes.
• Human performance toxicology – A forensic toxicologist who specializes in human performance toxicology studies the effects of substances on human behavior. For example, these professionals can analyze the extent to which a driver was impaired by substances before causing a car crash or how exposure to substances might have influenced a violent criminal.
• Death investigation toxicology – Also known as postmortem toxicology, this specialization is largely dedicated to discovering the cause of death. Postmortem toxicologists test samples collected from deceased individuals who may be either the victims of crimes or the perpetrators. A postmortem toxicologist may also determine whether a deceased individual was truly the victim of a crime or if they died of natural causes.

Like other types of toxicologists, forensic toxicologists must know how to use complicated lab equipment to run their tests, and they must know how to interpret their findings accurately. However, forensic toxicologists are more likely to need stellar communication skills as well. They must often testify in court and communicate complex terminology to a lay audience of jurors. There is significant pressure to ensure the results and interpretations are accurate, as incorrect information can readily lead to a miscarriage of justice.

Medical Toxicology

If your passion for science includes an interest in helping sick people get well again, you might consider exploring a career in medical toxicology. Medical toxicologists care for patients who have been exposed to toxic substances, both natural and manmade. A medical toxicologist is responsible for:

• Evaluating
• Diagnosing
• Treating patients
• Preventing toxic exposure

Some medical toxicologists may develop knowledge of the health effects of certain agents, such as the following:

• Pesticides
• Medications (intentional and unintentional overdoses)
• Drugs of abuse
• Marine toxins
• Snake and spider venom
• Toxic plants

Note that the pathway toward pursuing this particular job is different than that of most toxicology careers. Since these professionals diagnose and treat patients, they must go to medical school. Here’s a quick look at a career pathway for this profession:

• Earn a pre-med bachelor’s degree, ideally with a concentration in toxicology
• Graduate from medical school, complete residency training and become a licensed physician
• Complete a two-year fellowship in medical toxicology that has been approved by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education
• Pass the Medical Toxicology Board exam to become a board-certified medical toxicologist

The path toward becoming a medical toxicologist is a rigorous one. However, this career can be highly rewarding. Medical toxicologists make it their life’s work to save lives.

Industrial or Occupational Toxicology

It’s the job of industrial or occupational toxicologists to assess the risks of toxic exposure to workers; they then provide recommendations to minimize the risk and protect the workers. If a chemical exposure accident occurs, industrial toxicologists may be called upon to advise on environmental remediation strategies and treatment approaches for any exposed workers or bystanders.

It’s often thought that these kinds of toxicology careers are only necessary in manufacturing workplaces, such as the plant of a chemical manufacturer. Yet, all types of substances can pose risks to human health. Consider the following circumstances:

• Workers in a bakery may inhale a great deal of flour dust into their lungs
• Workers in an office building may be at risk from asbestos
• Hair stylists may breathe in toxic fumes from dyes and other chemical treatments
• Workers at a musical instrument factory may be exposed to toxic copper dust
• Workers at a gun range may suffer from lead poisoning

Cancers, debilitating lung diseases, neurological disabilities and infertility are all examples of adverse health outcomes that can result from toxic exposure in the workplace, particularly when that exposure occurs over a prolonged period. However, every worker deserves to be reasonably protected from harm. If you opt to pursue these types of jobs in toxicology, you could play an important role in protecting the health of others in your community.

Regulatory Toxicology

As the job title implies, regulatory toxicology involves shaping public policy. Regulatory toxicologists are responsible for testing products and their toxic or potentially toxic ingredients to determine what risk they pose to human and environmental health.

Some substances are only a threat if they occur in high enough concentrations or if humans are exposed to them for a certain period or above a certain dosage. It’s the job of a regulatory toxicologist to determine the threshold between safe and unsafe exposure to these substances. Regulatory toxicologists may work with a wide range of substances, including:

• Pesticides
• Food additives
• Cosmetics
• Drugs
• Industrial chemicals

The findings of regulatory toxicologists are passed along to agencies that shape public policy, such as the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Some examples of issues that a regulatory toxicologist may work on include the following:

• The risks of building homes on top of contaminated soil
• The potential for harm if a certain pesticide is present in drinking water
• Whether emissions from a landfill site will harm human health
• Whether a particular food additive may be harmful in high concentrations

Environmental Toxicology

Does air pollution influence the development of dementia? Are fish from a polluted river safe to consume? How do pesticides move through the food web? These are all examples of questions that an environmental toxicologist may work to answer.

These types of jobs in toxicology focus on how toxic substances move through and affect the environment. It’s often thought that environmental toxicologists only study the effects of toxic substances on plants, animals and ecosystems, like rivers or marshlands.

Yet, humans too are part of the natural world, and the health of the environment directly affects the health of humans. Environmental toxicologists can study how substances introduced to the environment by humans negatively affect the environment, as well as how those substances in turn affect humans. So, for example, humans cause air pollution, which harms both the overall environment as well as human health.

What Do Toxicologists Do?

Research

Many toxicologists, especially in academic and nonprofit institutions, are principally involved in the discovery of new knowledge concerning how toxic substances produce their effects. There are many subspecialty areas in toxicology research: chemical carcinogenesis, reproductive and developmental toxicology, neurotoxicology, immunotoxicology, inhalation toxicology, risk assessment, and many others. Researchers use laboratory animals, human and animal cells in culture, and other test systems to examine the cellular, biochemical and molecular processes underlying toxic responses. Research opportunities are available for individuals employed in industry, academia and government. There are many commercial and nonprofit laboratories that also provide interesting and challenging

Research is considered to be “basic” where no immediate commercial or public health application is expected, but the knowledge will add to our understanding of basic life processes. Such research is of great value in solving important and long-term problems. Examples of this would be studies of how a particular enzyme involved in the detoxification of a chemical is regulated at the gene level or how a chemical affects

Other research is considered “applied” when the results are expected to yield direct social or commercial benefit. Examples would be studies to identify new chemicals that selectively kill certain pests or studies to determine if a particular industrial process is responsible for a specific disease identified in a population of workers. Developments of antidotes for radiation injury or chemical poisoning are examples of applied research of public health importance.

Product Safety Evaluation

Many industries employ toxicologists to assist in the evaluation of the safety of their products. For therapeutic drugs, food additives, cosmetics, agricultural chemicals and other classes of chemicals, federal laws often require that the manufacturer provide adequate testing of the product before it is released into commerce. Tests to determine if a chemical has the potential to cause cancer, birth defects, reproductive effects, neurological toxicity or other adverse

Toxicologists involved in product safety evaluation have the responsibility to ensure that such tests are designed, conducted and interpreted in a scientifically sound manner. Information from such studies is, in turn, reviewed by toxicologists in various regulatory agencies, such as the US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) and the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), or by international organizations to ensure that the products

When the information is available, toxicologists also utilize studies of human populations (the science of epidemiology) to assist in the evaluation of the safety and potential risks of the chemical products and by-products of modern society.

Teaching

Toxicologists employed in colleges and universities are involved in teaching toxicology to students and others. Because of increasing interest in the impacts of chemicals on our society, many colleges and universities offer toxicology courses at both the undergraduate and graduate level. Academic institutions that do not have graduate programs in toxicology employ toxicologists to participate in curriculum development and teach basic programs such as chemistry and biology. Thus, opportunities exist to teach toxicology in small colleges as well as major universities. One of the most important efforts of toxicologists in academic institutions is the training of future generations of toxicologists in basic and applied research, data interpretation and evaluation, and risk assessment and regulatory affairs.

Public Service, Regulatory Affairs, and Consulting

An important part of any science is communicating results and discussing implications. The tremendous growth in public awareness of chemical hazards over the last two decades has resulted in the passage of many laws governing the production, use and disposal of chemicals. Many local, state and federal regulatory agencies employ toxicologists to assist in the development and enforcement of these laws. An increasingly important area of toxicology is in public communication of chemical risks. Toxicologists employed by regulatory agencies may often be called upon to explain the scientific basis for regulatory actions, or to assist in communicating to the public why regulatory actions are or are not taken in particular situations. There are many private consulting firms with expertise in toxicology that can now provide such services to local and state health departments, public utilities, private industries, etc. Thus, many employment opportunities in the private sector are available to the toxicologist interested in assisting public agencies and private industries in resolving many important public health and environmental problems. Some scientists like this aspect so much that they pursue consulting full-time.

Where Do Toxicologists Work?

The “Job Market Survey” estimates that 9,000 toxicologists are employed in North America. Of recent PhD’s, 53 percent entered industry, 34 percent found positions in academia and 12 percent in government. These numbers are similar to overall employment statistics in the discipline as projected in the “Job Market Survey.”

Comparison with other careers is possible by investigating the Occupational Outlook Handbook produced by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Chemical, Consumer Products, Pharmaceutical and Other Industries

Industries are the number one employer of toxicologists (47 percent). Product development, product safety evaluation, and regulatory compliance generate a large job market for toxicologists. Pharmaceutical industries employ 17 percent of toxicologists, and chemical industries employ 7 percent. These industries often employ toxicologists trained at all levels of education. The “Toxicologist Supply and Expertise Survey” found that, of recent graduates, 53 percent of those with PhD’s, 73 percent of those with master’s degrees and 58 percent of those with bachelor’s degrees entered industry. Many industries have their own research and product safety evaluation programs, while others may contract their work to specific research organizations that are managed independently from the industry.

Academic Institutions

Academic institutions are the number two employer of toxicologists (21 percent). The rapid growth in toxicology programs has generated a large and growing market for toxicologists with doctoral level training. Although most of these opportunities are in schools of medicine and/or public health in major universities, smaller colleges are beginning to employ toxicologists to teach toxicology in basic biology, chemistry and engineering programs.

Government

Government is the third largest employer of toxicologists (14 percent). Although most government jobs are with federal regulatory agencies, many states are now beginning to employ toxicologists with master’s degrees.

Consulting

An increasing number of toxicologists are employed in the professional services industry (12 percent). Providing professional guidance and advice to local public agencies, industries and attorneys involved in problems with toxic chemicals is a rapidly growing activity for the experienced toxicologist. Many graduates of baccalaureate and master’s programs in toxicology are finding employment with consulting firms. Individuals with doctoral training and several years of experience in applied toxicology may also find opportunities directing projects and serving as team leaders or administrators in the consulting

Research Foundations

A small proportion of toxicologists pursue research within nonprofit organizations (4 percent). Numerous public and private research foundations employ toxicologists to conduct research on specific problems of industrial or public concern. Toxicologists at all levels of education

Regional Distribution of Toxicology Jobs

Although the majority of government and industry jobs are located in the eastern portion of the United States, employment opportunities at all levels are available throughout the country. The geographic distribution of SOT members in the continental United States reflects job distribution.

How Much Do Toxicologists Earn?

As with any profession, the level of education and length of experience are key determinants of salary. Entry level positions for those with doctoral degrees are often in the range of $35,000 to $60,000, with rapid advancement possible. In general, positions in industry pay slightly better than government or academia. Mid-range professionals with a PhD degree and 10 years of experience can expect to earn $70,000 to $100,000 annually. Most executive positions in toxicology exceed $100,000 per year, and some corporate executive toxicologists earn $200,000 or more. Of course, salaries for those with master’s and/or bachelor’s degrees in toxicology will generally be less than those for individuals with doctoral degrees, but are still highly competitive with other science-based professions.

How Do I Prepare for a Career in Toxicology?

Jobs are available for recipients of associate through doctoral degrees. Candidates with two- or four-year degrees can work in toxicology as laboratory assistants, research technicians or animal care specialists.

Depending upon your career aspirations, a bachelor’s degree may not be enough for you to achieve your goals. The higher the degree, the more likely your position will provide more opportunities, more responsibility and higher salaries. Of recent graduates from toxicology programs, 55 percent received PhD’s, 22 percent master’s degrees, and 23 percent bachelor’s degrees. According to the “Job Market Survey,” about half of employed toxicologists have a PhD Postdoctoral experience was considered an “absolute” requirement by 29 percent of the employers who planned to hire toxicologists in the next few years; an additional 38 percent listed such experience as “desired.” Postdoctoral training is a route to employment in toxicology for those with advanced degrees in other areas, such as the PhD in other biomedical sciences, the MD, or DVM.

In the “Job Market Survey,” employers requested strong written and oral communication skills and knowledge of computers. Good laboratory practice, project management skills and statistics experience were also viewed as important. The fast pace of change and future job market will favor

High School

A strong foundation for any future scientist is based on skills in reading, writing, mathematics, computer science and communication, along with courses in biology, chemistry, and physics. Knowledge of a foreign language is important for exchanging information in our global society. Extra-curricular activities such as science fairs and clubs build leadership experience. Part-time or summer work in a research laboratory is also valuable.

Undergraduate Education

If your institution does not have a baccalaureate program in toxicology, a major in biology or chemistry provides a basis for a career in this discipline. Take as many biology and chemistry courses as you can, as well as physics, computer science, statistics and mathematics (including calculus). Improve your writing and speaking skills, and develop a multidisciplinary foundation to increase your options and qualifications. While breadth in your undergraduate training is important, depth and experience provided by working in a laboratory or completing a student research project can be very important in increasing your skills and helping you determine the kind of science career that suits your interest and skills. Engage in activities that improve team-building aptitude, as well as those that improve hand-eye coordination. Join local and national scientific professional societies and participate in student-oriented events, regional and national meetings. All of these efforts will be repaid whether you enter the job market immediately after receiving your degree or

Financial Support

Information about financial aid is available on the internet at sites such as Financial Aid and FastWeb. Of special interest to members of groups under-represented in the sciences is the Minority Online Information Service (MOLIS). MOLIS is a database including information on faculty and programs at about 300 minority institutions, as well as hyperlinks to other information that is of benefit to the minority education and research communities.

Preparation for Graduate Study

Careful planning and attention to your undergraduate courses will

Most graduate toxicology programs have specific prerequisites for admission. In addition to a baccalaureate degree in a relevant field of study such as biology or chemistry, these requirements often include advanced coursework in chemistry, especially organic chemistry, at least one year of general biology, a year of college math including calculus, and general physics. Additional upper division courses in biochemistry, molecular biology and physiology will often increase your competitive advantage for admission. Effective communication is an important skill for toxicologists; therefore, coursework in scientific writing and public speaking is also useful. Involvement in extracurricular activities is a valuable way to develop and demonstrate your leadership and communication skills.

Consult the programs that are of interest to you to determine their specific admission requirements. In addition to a strong academic record, demonstration of basic laboratory and research skills and leadership abilities will increase your chances of admission to the more competitive programs. Undergraduate research experience or working during the summer in a research laboratory is a plus. From January to April each year, the SOT provides a listing of summer internships available in academic, industrial and government research laboratories across the country. Contact the SOT Headquarters office for more information about the Summer Internship Program.

Performance on the Graduate Record Examination is also important. You should take the exam at least nine months prior to the time you plan to begin your graduate study and you should prepare in advance for the exam.

If possible, plan to visit the programs you wish to consider in advance of your application process. Notify the director of the program of your interests and arrange to speak with the director and other faculty in the program.

An excellent source of information is Careers in Science and Engineering: A Student Planning Guide to Graduate School and Beyond (National Academy Press, 1996). One example in this book traces the career path of a physicist into toxicology.